Acting without reducing others to means
Read the Groundwork’s three sections through good will, maxims and respect for persons.
An original introduction. This guide accompanies the work; it is neither the complete text nor a translation.
Assess the principle of an action
Kant distinguishes an action merely in accordance with duty from an action done from duty. The same outward deed may therefore receive different analyses depending on its principle. This distinction does not excuse neglecting what one actually does. It asks us to examine our reasons without reducing morality to the flattering image an action creates of ourselves.
Formulate a precise maxim
A maxim states the subjective principle of an action: under which circumstances, towards which end and through which conduct? The universalisation test becomes confused if the rule is vague or engineered to guarantee the desired answer. Work through the example of a false promise, then discuss what the reasoning establishes and what still needs clarification.
Take dignity seriously
The humanity formulation asks us never to treat a person merely as a means. It does not prohibit every useful exchange; it requires respecting others as beings capable of ends. Examine cases of manipulation and consent. Also confront this demand with historical exclusions in Kant’s other writings, rather than concealing the tension between them.
Respecting a person concerns how we act with them, not only the outcome we hope to secure.
Your turn to think.
- Would the rule you invoke remain acceptable if the roles were reversed?
- What information is necessary for another person’s agreement to be genuinely informed?
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