Discourses on Livy
In three books of commentary on the first ten books of Livy’s Roman history, Machiavelli asks how free states are founded, how they expand and how they can be brought back to their principles. He argues that the conflicts between plebs and senate, when channelled by laws, made Rome both free and powerful.
Understanding the text
Composed between about 1513 and 1519, the work grew out of discussions in the Orti Oricellari gardens and is dedicated to Zanobi Buondelmonti and Cosimo Rucellai. Its dating relative to The Prince is debated; it was printed in 1531.
Key points
- 01
Conflict and liberty
Book 1 holds that the tumults between the nobles and the people, kept within public orders, produced laws favourable to liberty.
- 02
Mixed government
Drawing on Polybius, Machiavelli argues that a constitution combining princely, aristocratic and popular elements lasts longer than any simple form.
- 03
Return to principles
Book 3 opens by claiming that republics and religions survive only if external events, laws or exemplary citizens periodically bring them back to their beginnings.
Explore the ideas in depth
Conflict and free republics
Examine how the Discourses turn civic conflict, mixed government and popular judgement into conditions of liberty.
Situating the text
Composed between about 1513 and 1519, the work grew out of discussions in the Orti Oricellari gardens and is dedicated to Zanobi Buondelmonti and Cosimo Rucellai. Its dating relative to The Prince is debated; it was printed in 1531. In three books of commentary on the first ten books of Livy’s Roman history, Machiavelli asks how free states are founded, how they expand and how they can be brought back to their principles. He argues that the conflicts between plebs and senate, when channelled by laws, made Rome both free and powerful.
Following the arguments
Conflict and liberty : Book 1 holds that the tumults between the nobles and the people, kept within public orders, produced laws favourable to liberty. Mixed government : Drawing on Polybius, Machiavelli argues that a constitution combining princely, aristocratic and popular elements lasts longer than any simple form. Return to principles : Book 3 opens by claiming that republics and religions survive only if external events, laws or exemplary citizens periodically bring them back to their beginnings.
Continuing the reading
Begin with the preface to Book 1 and its first ten chapters, then compare the defence of popular judgement in chapter 58 with the counsel given to princes. Composed between about 1513 and 1519, the work grew out of discussions in the Orti Oricellari gardens and is dedicated to Zanobi Buondelmonti and Cosimo Rucellai. Its dating relative to The Prince is debated; it was printed in 1531.
Questions to carry into your reading
- When does conflict between nobles and people strengthen liberty, and when does it destroy it?
- Why does Machiavelli think that a people can be wiser and more constant than a prince?
For Machiavelli, liberty depends less on harmony than on institutions able to channel the conflict between the great and the people.
How to read it
Begin with the preface to Book 1 and its first ten chapters, then compare the defence of popular judgement in chapter 58 with the counsel given to princes.
Editions & sources
Summaries and key points are original editorial interpretations. They accompany reading the work and do not replace an edition of the text. Editorial method ↗