Philosophical Investigations
The Investigations open with Augustine’s account of how a child learns words and use it to question the idea that every word names an object. Through language games, family resemblance and the remarks on following a rule and on a private language, Wittgenstein argues that meaning is in many cases use within shared practices, and that philosophical problems arise when language is taken out of the work it ordinarily does.
Understanding the text
Wittgenstein worked on the book from 1936 and dated its preface January 1945, but withdrew it from publication and allowed it to appear only after his death. It was published in 1953, edited by G. E. M. Anscombe and Rush Rhees, with Anscombe’s English facing the German. The editors printed a later typescript as Part II; the 2009 revision by P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte calls it Philosophy of Psychology – A Fragment.
Key points
- 01
Language games
Words are understood within activities such as giving orders, describing, reporting, guessing or joking; no single function defines language as a whole.
- 02
Rule-following
Following a rule is a practice sustained by training and agreement in reactions, not an inner interpretation that settles every future step in advance.
- 03
Private language
A language whose words referred only to one speaker’s inner sensations would lack any criterion of correct use, so that whatever seemed right would be right.
Explore the ideas in depth
Meaning and use
Test language games, family resemblance and the remarks on rules against examples drawn from everyday speech.
Situating the text
Wittgenstein worked on the book from 1936 and dated its preface January 1945, but withdrew it from publication and allowed it to appear only after his death. It was published in 1953, edited by G. E. M. Anscombe and Rush Rhees, with Anscombe’s English facing the German. The editors printed a later typescript as Part II; the 2009 revision by P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte calls it Philosophy of Psychology – A Fragment. The Investigations open with Augustine’s account of how a child learns words and use it to question the idea that every word names an object. Through language games, family resemblance and the remarks on following a rule and on a private language, Wittgenstein argues that meaning is in many cases use within shared practices, and that philosophical problems arise when language is taken out of the work it ordinarily does.
Following the arguments
Language games : Words are understood within activities such as giving orders, describing, reporting, guessing or joking; no single function defines language as a whole. Rule-following : Following a rule is a practice sustained by training and agreement in reactions, not an inner interpretation that settles every future step in advance. Private language : A language whose words referred only to one speaker’s inner sensations would lack any criterion of correct use, so that whatever seemed right would be right.
Continuing the reading
Read §§1 to 43 slowly, then the remarks on rules from §185 to §242 and on sensation from §243; test each remark against an example of your own rather than extracting theses. Wittgenstein worked on the book from 1936 and dated its preface January 1945, but withdrew it from publication and allowed it to appear only after his death. It was published in 1953, edited by G. E. M. Anscombe and Rush Rhees, with Anscombe’s English facing the German. The editors printed a later typescript as Part II; the 2009 revision by P. M. S. Hacker and Joachim Schulte calls it Philosophy of Psychology – A Fragment.
Questions to carry into your reading
- In which language game does the word you are examining do its work?
- What makes one way of continuing a number series correct, if not an inner interpretation?
Many philosophical puzzles loosen once we describe how words are actually used instead of searching for hidden essences.
How to read it
Read §§1 to 43 slowly, then the remarks on rules from §185 to §242 and on sensation from §243; test each remark against an example of your own rather than extracting theses.
Editions & sources
Summaries and key points are original editorial interpretations. They accompany reading the work and do not replace an edition of the text. Editorial method ↗