Who read whom.
Every solid thread on this map stands for something on record: a book that argues with another, a commentary, a correspondence, a debt acknowledged in print. It joins a reader to the author they read, or two contemporaries who answered each other.
Dotted threads are of another kind. They bring together thinkers with no documented reading between them who ask kindred questions, so that their differences can speak. Choose a name in the list to light up its threads.
How to read the map
- Reading
- A later work reads an earlier one and answers it.
- Dialogue
- Contemporaries who wrote to, against or alongside each other.
- Kindred question
- No documented reading, but a shared question, paired by the editors.
These connections are editorial suggestions: they bring differences into conversation without attributing a shared doctrine to these thinkers.
Every thinker and their links
A name inside an entry takes you to that thinker’s own entry in this list; the name heading each entry opens their page.
Antiquity
Pythagoras
c. 570–495 BCE
Buddha
c. 563 – c. 483 BCE (traditional dates)
- Read by
- Find meaningArthur Schopenhauer, Leo Tolstoy, Friedrich Nietzsche
- Live togetherRabindranath Tagore
- Kindred questions
- Know yourselfDavid Hume
Confucius
551–479 BCE · traditional dates
Heraclitus
c. 540–480 BCE
- Read and answered
- Seek the truthPythagoras
- Read by
- Seek the truthPlato, Aristotle, Lucretius, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
- Find meaningMarcus Aurelius, Friedrich Nietzsche
- Kindred questions
- Seek the truthZhuangzi
Laozi
Dates uncertain · ancient China
- Kindred questions
- Live togetherConfucius
Socrates
c. 469–399 BCE
- Read by
- Seek the truthPlato, Aristotle, Friedrich Nietzsche
- Find meaningSeneca, John Stuart Mill
- Know yourselfEpictetus, Marcus Aurelius, Michel de Montaigne, Søren Kierkegaard, Hannah Arendt, Michel Foucault
- Kindred questions
- Seek the truthConfucius
Plato
c. 428/427–348/347 BCE
- Read and answered
- Seek the truthPythagoras, Heraclitus, Socrates
- Read by
- Seek the truthAristotle, Augustine of Hippo, Maimonides, René Descartes, Immanuel Kant, Arthur Schopenhauer, Ludwig Wittgenstein
- Find meaningEpicurus, Boethius, Friedrich Nietzsche, Simone Weil
- Live togetherAverroes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Aristotle
384–322 BCE
- Read and answered
- Seek the truthPythagoras, Heraclitus, Socrates, Plato
- Read by
- Seek the truthEpicurus, Boethius, Averroes, Maimonides, Thomas Aquinas, Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
- Live togetherChristine de Pizan, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, Hannah Arendt
- Kindred questions
- Know yourselfConfucius
Zhuangzi
c. 369 – c. 286 BCE
- Kindred questions
- Seek the truthHeraclitus, René Descartes
Epicurus
341–270 BCE
- Read by
- Be freeLucretius, Karl Marx
- Know yourselfSeneca, Marcus Aurelius
- Find meaningFriedrich Nietzsche
Lucretius
c. 99 – c. 55 BCE
Seneca
c. 4 BCE — 65 CE
Epictetus
c. 50 — c. 135 CE
Marcus Aurelius
121 — 180 CE
- Read by
- Be freeJohn Stuart Mill
Augustine of Hippo
354–430
- Read and answered
- Seek the truthPlato
- Read by
- Seek the truthBoethius, Michel de Montaigne, Ludwig Wittgenstein
- Find meaningThomas Aquinas, Blaise Pascal
- Live togetherChristine de Pizan
- Know yourselfRené Descartes
- Be freeHannah Arendt
- Kindred questions
- Know yourselfJean-Jacques Rousseau
Boethius
c. 477 – c. 524
Medieval
Averroes
1126–1198
- Read by
- Seek the truthMaimonides, Thomas Aquinas
- Kindred questions
- Seek the truthBaruch Spinoza
Maimonides
1138–1204
- Read by
- Seek the truthThomas Aquinas, Baruch Spinoza
Thomas Aquinas
c. 1225–1274
- Read and answered
- Seek the truthAristotle, Boethius, Averroes, Maimonides
- Find meaningAugustine of Hippo
- Read by
- Seek the truthRené Descartes
Christine de Pizan
c. 1364 – c. 1430
- Read by
- Live togetherSimone de Beauvoir
- Kindred questions
- Live togetherMary Wollstonecraft
Modern era
Niccolò Machiavelli
1469–1527
- Read and answered
- Be freeLucretius
- Read by
- Live togetherMichel de Montaigne, David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
- Be freeBaruch Spinoza, Hannah Arendt
Michel de Montaigne
1533–1592
- Read and answered
- Know yourselfSocrates, Seneca, Epictetus
- Find meaningLucretius
- Seek the truthAugustine of Hippo
- Live togetherNiccolò Machiavelli
- Read by
- Seek the truthRené Descartes, Blaise Pascal
- Know yourselfVoltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Friedrich Nietzsche, Virginia Woolf
René Descartes
1596–1650
- Read and answered
- Seek the truthPlato, Thomas Aquinas, Michel de Montaigne
- Find meaningSeneca
- Know yourselfAugustine of Hippo
- Read by
- Seek the truthBlaise Pascal, John Locke, Baruch Spinoza, Voltaire, Émilie du Châtelet, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Simone Weil, Michel Foucault
- Be freeJean-Paul Sartre
- Kindred questions
- Seek the truthZhuangzi
Blaise Pascal
1623–1662
- Read and answered
- Know yourselfEpictetus
- Find meaningAugustine of Hippo
- Seek the truthMichel de Montaigne, René Descartes
- Read by
- Find meaningVoltaire, Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche
Baruch Spinoza
1632–1677
John Locke
1632–1704
- Read and answered
- Seek the truthRené Descartes
Voltaire
1694–1778
- Read and answered
- Live togetherConfucius
- Know yourselfMichel de Montaigne
- Seek the truthRené Descartes, John Locke
- Find meaningBlaise Pascal
- Read by
- Find meaningFyodor Dostoevsky
Émilie du Châtelet
1706–1749
- Read and answered
- Seek the truthRené Descartes
- Read by
- Seek the truthImmanuel Kant
- In dialogue
- Seek the truthVoltaire
- Kindred questions
- Live togetherMary Wollstonecraft
David Hume
1711–1776
- Read and answered
- Live togetherNiccolò Machiavelli
- Seek the truthRené Descartes, John Locke, Baruch Spinoza
- Read by
- Seek the truthImmanuel Kant
- In dialogue
- Live togetherJean-Jacques Rousseau
- Kindred questions
- Know yourselfBuddha
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
1712–1778
- Read and answered
- Live togetherPlato, Aristotle, Niccolò Machiavelli, John Locke
- Know yourselfMichel de Montaigne
- Read by
- Be freeImmanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
- Live togetherMary Wollstonecraft, Karl Marx, Leo Tolstoy
- Kindred questions
- Know yourselfAugustine of Hippo, Henry David Thoreau
Immanuel Kant
1724–1804
- Read and answered
- Seek the truthPlato, Aristotle, René Descartes, Émilie du Châtelet, David Hume
- Be freeJean-Jacques Rousseau
- Read by
- Seek the truthGeorg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer
- Live togetherJohn Stuart Mill, Hannah Arendt
- Be freeJean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Michel Foucault
- Kindred questions
- Seek the truthLudwig Wittgenstein
Mary Wollstonecraft
1759–1797
- Read and answered
- Live togetherJean-Jacques Rousseau
- Read by
- Live togetherVirginia Woolf
- Kindred questions
- Live togetherChristine de Pizan, Émilie du Châtelet, John Stuart Mill
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
1770–1831
- Read and answered
- Seek the truthHeraclitus, Aristotle, Baruch Spinoza, Immanuel Kant
- Live togetherNiccolò Machiavelli
- Be freeJean-Jacques Rousseau
- Read by
- Seek the truthArthur Schopenhauer, Michel Foucault
- Know yourselfSøren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir
- Live togetherKarl Marx
Arthur Schopenhauer
1788–1860
- Read and answered
- Find meaningBuddha
- Seek the truthPlato, Immanuel Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
John Stuart Mill
1806–1873
- Read and answered
- Find meaningSocrates
- Be freeMarcus Aurelius
- Seek the truthJohn Locke
- Live togetherImmanuel Kant
- Read by
- Live togetherKarl Marx
- Kindred questions
- Live togetherMary Wollstonecraft
Søren Kierkegaard
1813–1855
- Kindred questions
- Know yourselfFriedrich Nietzsche
Henry David Thoreau
1817–1862
- Read and answered
- Seek the truthConfucius
- Kindred questions
- Know yourselfJean-Jacques Rousseau
Karl Marx
1818–1883
- Read and answered
- Live togetherAristotle, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, John Stuart Mill
- Be freeEpicurus
- Read by
- Live togetherJean-Paul Sartre, Hannah Arendt, Simone Weil
Fyodor Dostoevsky
1821–1881
- Read and answered
- Find meaningVoltaire
- Read by
- Find meaningLeo Tolstoy, Ludwig Wittgenstein
- Know yourselfFriedrich Nietzsche, Virginia Woolf, Franz Kafka
- Be freeJean-Paul Sartre
Leo Tolstoy
1828–1910
- Read and answered
- Find meaningBuddha, Laozi, Arthur Schopenhauer, Fyodor Dostoevsky
- Live togetherJean-Jacques Rousseau
- Be freeHenry David Thoreau
- Read by
- Find meaningVirginia Woolf, Ludwig Wittgenstein
- Kindred questions
- Be freeRabindranath Tagore
Contemporary era
Friedrich Nietzsche
1844–1900
- Read and answered
- Find meaningBuddha, Heraclitus, Plato, Epicurus, Blaise Pascal, Arthur Schopenhauer
- Seek the truthSocrates
- Know yourselfMichel de Montaigne, Fyodor Dostoevsky
- Be freeBaruch Spinoza
- Read by
- Find meaningLudwig Wittgenstein, Jean-Paul Sartre
- Be freeSimone de Beauvoir
- Seek the truthMichel Foucault
- Kindred questions
- Know yourselfSøren Kierkegaard
Rabindranath Tagore
1861–1941
- Read by
- Find meaningLudwig Wittgenstein
- Kindred questions
- Be freeLeo Tolstoy
Virginia Woolf
1882–1941
- Read and answered
- Know yourselfMichel de Montaigne, Fyodor Dostoevsky
- Live togetherMary Wollstonecraft
- Be freeHenry David Thoreau
- Find meaningLeo Tolstoy
- Read by
- Be freeSimone de Beauvoir
Franz Kafka
1883–1924
Ludwig Wittgenstein
1889–1951
- Read and answered
- Seek the truthPlato, Augustine of Hippo
- Know yourselfArthur Schopenhauer
- Find meaningSøren Kierkegaard, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Friedrich Nietzsche, Rabindranath Tagore
- Kindred questions
- Seek the truthImmanuel Kant
Jean-Paul Sartre
1905–1980
- Read and answered
- Be freeRené Descartes, Immanuel Kant, Søren Kierkegaard, Fyodor Dostoevsky
- Know yourselfGeorg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
- Live togetherKarl Marx
- Find meaningFriedrich Nietzsche, Franz Kafka
Hannah Arendt
1906–1975
- Read and answered
- Know yourselfSocrates
- Live togetherAristotle, Immanuel Kant, Henry David Thoreau, Karl Marx, Franz Kafka, Simone Weil
- Be freeAugustine of Hippo, Niccolò Machiavelli
Simone de Beauvoir
1908–1986
- Read and answered
- Live togetherChristine de Pizan
- Be freeImmanuel Kant, Friedrich Nietzsche, Virginia Woolf
- Know yourselfGeorg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
- Kindred questions
- Live togetherMichel Foucault
Simone Weil
1909–1943
- Read by
- Live togetherHannah Arendt
- In dialogue
- Live togetherSimone de Beauvoir
Michel Foucault
1926–1984
- Read and answered
- Know yourselfSocrates, Seneca, Epictetus
- Seek the truthRené Descartes, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Nietzsche
- Be freeImmanuel Kant
- In dialogue
- Seek the truthJean-Paul Sartre
- Kindred questions
- Live togetherSimone de Beauvoir
- Pythagoras, c. 570–495 BCE
- Buddha, c. 563 – c. 483 BCE (traditional dates)
- Confucius, 551–479 BCE · traditional dates
- Heraclitus, c. 540–480 BCE
- Laozi, Dates uncertain · ancient China
- Socrates, c. 469–399 BCE
- Plato, c. 428/427–348/347 BCE
- Aristotle, 384–322 BCE
- Zhuangzi, c. 369 – c. 286 BCE
- Epicurus, 341–270 BCE
- Lucretius, c. 99 – c. 55 BCE
- Seneca, c. 4 BCE — 65 CE
- Epictetus, c. 50 — c. 135 CE
- Marcus Aurelius, 121 — 180 CE
- Augustine (Augustine of Hippo), 354–430
- Boethius, c. 477 – c. 524
- Averroes, 1126–1198
- Maimonides, 1138–1204
- Thomas Aquinas, c. 1225–1274
- Christine de Pizan, c. 1364 – c. 1430
- Machiavelli (Niccolò Machiavelli), 1469–1527
- Montaigne (Michel de Montaigne), 1533–1592
- Descartes (René Descartes), 1596–1650
- Pascal (Blaise Pascal), 1623–1662
- Spinoza (Baruch Spinoza), 1632–1677
- Locke (John Locke), 1632–1704
- Voltaire, 1694–1778
- Émilie du Châtelet, 1706–1749
- Hume (David Hume), 1711–1776
- Rousseau (Jean-Jacques Rousseau), 1712–1778
- Kant (Immanuel Kant), 1724–1804
- Wollstonecraft (Mary Wollstonecraft), 1759–1797
- Hegel (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel), 1770–1831
- Schopenhauer (Arthur Schopenhauer), 1788–1860
- Mill (John Stuart Mill), 1806–1873
- Kierkegaard (Søren Kierkegaard), 1813–1855
- Thoreau (Henry David Thoreau), 1817–1862
- Marx (Karl Marx), 1818–1883
- Dostoevsky (Fyodor Dostoevsky), 1821–1881
- Tolstoy (Leo Tolstoy), 1828–1910
- Nietzsche (Friedrich Nietzsche), 1844–1900
- Tagore (Rabindranath Tagore), 1861–1941
- Woolf (Virginia Woolf), 1882–1941
- Kafka (Franz Kafka), 1883–1924
- Wittgenstein (Ludwig Wittgenstein), 1889–1951
- Sartre (Jean-Paul Sartre), 1905–1980
- Arendt (Hannah Arendt), 1906–1975
- Beauvoir (Simone de Beauvoir), 1908–1986
- Simone Weil, 1909–1943
- Foucault (Michel Foucault), 1926–1984
read and answeredin conversationkindred questions
Every documented link between the thinkers, on a dial read clockwise from the top in the order they were born. A solid line joins a thinker to those who read and answered them, or to a contemporary they argued with; a dotted line joins kindred questions. The list on this page gives each link in words.